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Are any of them eponyms? Using a dictionary if necessary, try to describe the word-formation processes involved in the creation of the underlined words in these sentences.

E Another type of affix is called a circumfix. Here are some examples from Indonesian. F When Hmong speakers from Laos and Vietnam settled in the USA, they had to create some new words for the different objects and experiences they encountered. Using the following translations provided by Bruce Downing and Judy Fuller , can you work out the English equivalents of the Hmong expressions listed below? Using the examples below, and any others that you want to include in the discussion, try to decide if there are any typical patterns in the way we form compounds.

From these examples, and any others that you think might be relevant to the discussion, can you work out what the rule s might be for making new adjectives with the suffix -able? Further reading Basic treatments Denning, K. Kessler and W. Spencer and A. Zwicky eds. Naish, C. Rensch and G. Unfortunately, there are a number of problems with using this observation as the basis of an attempt to describe language in general, and individual linguistic forms in particular.

For example, in Swahili spoken throughout East Africa , the form nitakupenda conveys what, in English, would have to be represented as something like I will love you. Now, is the Swahili form a single word? We can recognize that English word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed and -ing.

All these elements are described as morphemes. In the sentence The police reopened the investigation, the word reopened consists of three morphemes. The word tourists also contains three morphemes. Free and bound morphemes From these examples, we can make a broad distinction between two types of mor- phemes. There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for example, open and tour. There are also bound morphemes, which are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s.

These forms were described in Chapter 5 as affixes. So, we can say that all affixes prefixes and suffixes in English are bound morphemes. The free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. When they are used with bound morphemes attached, the basic word forms are technically known as stems.

For example: undressed carelessness un- dress -ed care -less -ness prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix bound free bound free bound bound We should note that this type of description is a partial simplification of the morpho- logical facts of English.

There are a number of English words in which the element treated as the stem is not, in fact, a free morpheme. In words such as receive, reduce and repeat, we can identify the bound morpheme re- at the beginning, but the elements -ceive, -duce and -peat are not separate word forms and hence cannot be free mor- phemes.

Lexical and functional morphemes What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and some examples are: girl, man, house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break. Morphology 69 Other types of free morphemes are called functional morphemes. Examples are and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them. This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.

Derivational and inflectional morphemes The set of affixes that make up the category of bound morphemes can also be divided into two types.

One type is described in Chapter 5 in terms of the derivation of words. These are the derivational morphemes.

We use these bound morphemes to make new words or to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme -ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. The noun care can become the adjectives careful or careless by the addition of the derivational morphemes -ful or -less.

A list of derivational morphemes will include suffixes such as the -ish in foolish, -ly in quickly, and the -ment in payment. The list will also include prefixes such as re-, pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un- and many more. The second set of bound morphemes contains what are called inflectional mor- phemes. These are not used to produce new words in the language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.

Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form. One likes to have fun and is always laughing. The other liked to read as a child and has always taken things seriously. One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse. There are four inflections attached to verbs: -s 3rd person singular , -ing present participle , -ed past tense and -en past participle.

There are two inflections attached to adjectives: -er comparative and -est superlative. In English, all the inflectional morphemes are suffixes. Morphological description The difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is worth emphasiz- ing.

An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The -er inflection here from Old English -ra simply creates a different version of the adjective. However, a derivational mor- pheme can change the grammatical category of a word.

The verb teach becomes the noun teacher if we add the derivational morpheme -er from Old English -ere. So, the suffix -er in Modern English can be an inflectional morpheme as part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational morpheme as part of a noun. Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix attached to the same word, they always appear in that order.

First the derivational -er is attached to teach, then the inflectional -s is added to produce teachers. So far, we have only considered examples of English words in which the different morphemes are easily identifiable as separate elements.

The inflectional morpheme -s is added to cat and we get the plural cats. What is the inflectional morpheme that makes sheep the plural of sheep, or men the plural of man? And if -al is the derivational suffix added to the stem institution to give us institutional, then can we take -al off the word legal to get the stem leg? For example, the relationship between law and legal is a reflection of the historical influence of different languages on English word forms.

The modern form law is a result of a borrowing into Old English lagu from a Scandinavian source over 1, years ago. Consequently, there is no derivational relationship between the noun law and the adjective legal in English, nor between the noun mouth from Old English and the adjective oral a Latin borrowing. An extremely large number of English words owe their morphological patterning to languages like Latin and Greek.

Consequently, a full description of English morphology will have to take account of both historical influences and the effect of borrowed elements. Morphs and allomorphs One way to treat differences in inflectional morphemes is by proposing variation in morphological realization rules. In order to do this, we draw an analogy with some processes already noted in phonology Chapter 4.

Just as we treated phones as the actual phonetic realization of phonemes, so we can propose morphs as the actual forms used to realize morphemes. Yet they are all allomorphs of the one morpheme. Other languages When we look at the morphology of other languages, we can find other forms and patterns realizing the basic types of morphemes we have identified.

The first example below is from English and the second from a language called Aztec from Central America. In both cases, we attach a derivational morpheme to a stem, then add an inflectional morpheme. In the following examples, from a range of languages originally described in Gleason , we can try to work out how different forms in the languages are used to realize morphological processes and features. Kanuri This first set of examples is from Kanuri, a language spoken in Nigeria. Discovering a regular morphological feature of this type will enable us to make certain predictions when we encounter other forms in the language.

Ganda Different languages also employ different means to produce inflectional marking on forms. Here are some examples from Ganda, a language spoken in Uganda. Ilocano When we look at Ilocano, a language of the Philippines, we find a quite different way of marking plurals.

When the first part is bi- in the singular, the plural begins with this form repeated bibi-. There are many languages that use this repetition device as a means of inflectional marking. Tagalog Here are some other intriguing examples from Tagalog, another language spoken in the Philippines.

It is an example of an infix described in Chapter 5. In the third example in each column, note that the change in form involves, in each case, a repetition of the first syllable. So, the marking of future reference in Tagalog appears to be accomplished via reduplication. As we have been exploring all these different morphological processes, we have moved from the basic structure of words to a consideration of some topics traditionally associated with grammar.

We will focus more fully on issues relating to grammar in the next chapter. Morphology 75 Study questions 1 What are the functional morphemes in the following sentence? When he arrived in the morning, the old man had an umbrella and a large plastic bag full of books. Was there an example of an English suppletive form described in this chapter? B The selection of appropriate allomorphs is based on three different effects: lexical conditioning, morphological conditioning or phonological conditioning.

What type of conditioning do you think is involved in the relationship between the words in each of the following pairs? Does English have both? What are some typical English examples? D Using what you learned about Swahili and information provided in the set of examples below, create appropriate forms as translations of the English expressions 1—6 that follow. F Using what you learned about Tagalog, plus information from the set of examples here, create appropriate forms of these verbs for 1—10 below.

This would suggest that the forms which have the regular plural affix -s follow a different rule in compounding than irregular plural forms such as mice. Can you think of a way to state a rule or sequence of rules that would accommodate all the examples given here?

II In Turkish, there is some variation in the plural inflection. Using this information, can you state the conditions under which each of the plural morphs is used? For more examples, see Gleason, For more on Turkish, see Lewis, Further reading Basic treatments Coates, R. He went to the local radio station to record an ad to be read on the air. The copy was written by someone at the station. I was taught to diagram sentences when in doubt. Please settle it. Feeling Like a Fool.

Quoted in Lakoff We have already considered two levels of description used in the study of language. We have described linguistic expressions as sequences of sounds that can be represented in the phonetic alphabet and described in terms of their features.

Voiced fricative voiceless stop diphthong Figure 7. Grammar However, we have not accounted for the fact that these words can only be combined in a limited number of patterns. From these examples, we can see that English has strict rules for combining words into phrases.

The article the must go before the adjective lucky , which must go before the noun boys. The process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences is one way of defining grammar. It is the kind of definition assumed when we talk about the grammar of English as opposed to the grammar of Swahili, Tagalog or Turkish.

As illustrated in Chapter 6, each of these languages has different ways of forming grammatical phrases and sentences. Studying grammar in this way has a very long tradition. The best-known terms from that tradition are those used in describing the parts of speech. The technical terms used to describe each part of speech are illustrated in the following sentence and simple definitions of each term are listed below.

Adjectives are words used, typically with nouns, to provide more information about the things referred to happy people, large objects, a strange experience.

Adverbs are words used, typically with verbs, to provide more information about actions, states and events slowly, yesterday. Some adverbs really, very are also used with adjectives to modify information about things Really large objects move slowly. I had a very strange experience yesterday. Pronouns are words she, herself, they, it, you used in place of noun phrases, typically referring to people and things already known She talks to herself.

They said it belonged to you. Basic definitions of this type are useful for identifying most forms in a language such as English, but they are not completely reliable. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the parts of speech. Of course, not all nouns e.

Moreover, these characteristics are unlikely to be true of nouns in other lan- guages that we might want to describe. As we shall see, an alternative way of looking at nouns and other parts of speech had to be found in order to carry out structural analysis.

This agreement is partially based on the category of number, that is, whether the noun is singular or plural. It is also based on the category of person, which covers the distinctions of first person involving the speaker , second person involving the hearer and third person involving any others.

The different forms of English pro- nouns can be described in terms of person and number. We use I for first person singular, you for second person singular, and he, she, it or Cathy for third person singular.

In addition, the form of the verb must be described in terms of another category called tense. The sentence is also in the active voice, describing what Cathy does i. An alternative would be the passive voice, which can be used to describe what happens to Cathy i.

Our final category is gender, which helps us describe the agreement between Cathy and her in our example sentence. In English, we have to describe this relationship in terms of natural gender, mainly derived from a biological distinction between male and female.

The agreement between Cathy and her is based on a distinction made in English between reference to female entities she, her , male entities he, his and things or creatures, when the sex is unknown or irrelevant it, its. Grammatical gender The type of biological distinction used in English is quite different from the more common distinction found in languages that use grammatical gender. Whereas natural gender is based on sex male and female , grammatical gender is based on the type of noun masculine and feminine and is not tied to sex.

The different forms of the articles in both the Spanish el or la and German der, die or das examples correspond to differences in the gender class of the nouns. We should emphasize that this gender distinction is not based on a distinction in sex. So, the grammatical category of gender is very usefully applied in describing a number of languages including Latin , but may not be appropriate for describing forms in other languages such as English.

For more on gender, see Chapter First person singular I love amo Present tense, active voice Second person singular you love amas Third person singular she loves amat First person plural we love amamus Second person plural you love amatis Third person plural they love amant Each of the Latin verb forms is different, according to the categories of person and number, yet the English verb forms are with one exception mostly the same. In English, it makes more sense to say the categories describe different pro- nouns.

The influence of Latin, however, goes beyond the types of descriptive labels. The prescriptive approach It is one thing to adopt the grammatical labels e. Some familiar examples of prescriptive rules for English sentences are: You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Following these types of rules, traditional teachers would correct sentences like Who did you go with?

And Mary runs faster than me would be corrected to Mary runs faster than I. And Me and my family would certainly have to be corrected to My family and I, as Ann Landers would recommend. And, in proper English writing, one should never begin a sentence with and! However, it is worth considering the origins of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. At the beginning of each televised Star Trek episode, one of the main characters, Captain Kirk, always used the expression To boldly go … This is an example of a split infinitive.

Now, in saying Ire audacter … in Latin, Capitaneus Kirkus would not even have the opportunity to split his infinitive ire , because Latin infinitives are single words and just do not split. It would be very appropriate in Latin grammar to say you cannot split an infinitive. But is it appropriate to carry this idea over into English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single word, but of two words, to and go? The descriptive approach It may be that using a well-established grammatical description of Latin is a useful guide for some European languages e.

Italian or Spanish , is less useful for others e. English , and may be absolutely misleading if you are trying to describe some non-European languages. This last point became clear to those linguists who were trying to describe the structure of the native languages of North America toward the end of the nineteenth century.

The categories and rules that were appropriate for Latin grammar just did not seem to fit these languages. As a consequence, for most of the twentieth century, a rather different approach was adopted.

This is called the descriptive approach. Structural analysis One type of descriptive approach is called structural analysis and its main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a language. For example: The makes a lot of noise.

I heard a yesterday. There are a lot of forms that can fit into these slots to produce good grammatical sentences of English e.

As a result, we can propose that because all these forms fit in the same test-frame, they are likely to be examples of the same grammatical category. Examples would be Cathy, someone, the dog, a car, and many others. For these forms, we require different test-frames, which could look like this: makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. Among the other forms that comfortably fit these test-frames are it, the big dog, an old car, Ani Difranco, the professor with the Scottish accent, and many more.

Once again, we can suggest that these forms are likely to be examples of the same grammatical category. By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frames, we can produce a descrip- tion of at least some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. The technique employed in this approach is designed to show how small constituents or components in sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases.

In the following sentence, we can identify nine constituents at the word level: An old man brought a shotgun to the wedding. How do those nine constituents go together to form constituents at the phrase level? Does it seem appropriate to put the words together as follows? We are more likely to say that the phrase-like constituents here are combinations of the following types: an old man, a shotgun, the wedding, which are noun phrases; to the wedding, which is a prepositional phrase; and brought a shotgun, which is a verb phrase.

This analysis of the constituent structure of the sentence can be represented in different types of diagrams. One type of diagram simply shows the distribution of the constituents at different levels. An old man brought a shotgun to the wedding Figure 7. One advantage of this type of analysis is that it shows rather clearly that proper nouns or names Gwen, Kingston and pronouns I, him, her , though they are single words, can be used as noun phrases and fill the same constituent space as longer phrases e.

An old man brought a shotgun to the wedding The woman kept a large snake in a cage Gwen took Kingston with her I saw him recently Figure 7. The first step is to put brackets one on each side round each constituent, and then more brackets round each combination of constituents. For example: [The] [dog] [loved] [the] [girl] Figure 7. The result is a labeled and bracketed analysis of the constituent structure of the sentence. In this hierarchy, the sentence S is higher than and contains the noun phrase NP.

We will return to the important concept of hierarchical organization in grammatical structure in the next chapter. Before moving on, however, we should note that constituent analysis is not only useful for describing the structure of English sentences.

We can take a sample sentence from a language with a grammatical structure that is really quite different from English and apply the same type of analysis. Another noticeable feature is that, when an adjective is used, it goes after the noun and not before it. We can represent these structural observations in a labeled and bracketed diagram. It is not, of course, the aim of this type of analysis that we should be able to draw complicated-looking diagrams in order to impress our friends.

The aim is to make explicit, via the diagram, what we believe to be the structure of grammatical sentences in the language.

It also enables us to describe clearly how English sentences are put together as combinations of phrases which, in turn, are combinations of words. What is hypercorrection? C What is aspect? How is it used in the description of the underlined forms in these sentences? D What is the basis of the categorization of English verbs as transitive, intransitive or ditransitive? Can you use this categorization to explain why these sentences are ungrammatical? For background reading, see chapter 7 of Napoli, Grammar 95 Further reading Basic treatments Hudson, R.

Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Shopen ed. When we concentrate on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying the syntax of a language. This means that our analysis must account for all the grammatically correct phrases and sentences and only those grammatically correct phrases and sentences in whatever language we are analyzing.

For example, we might say informally that, in English, we put a preposition near before a noun London to form a prepositional phrase near London. We clearly need to be more careful in forming this rule. We might have more success with a rule stating that we put a preposition before a noun phrase not just a noun. In Chapter 7, we saw that a noun phrase can consist of a proper noun London , a pronoun you or a combination of an article a, the and a noun tree, dog , so that the revised rule can produce these well-formed structures: near London, with you, near a tree, with the dog.

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